In teaching about photosynthesis, for example, the teacher or at least her curriculum needs to identify the basic elements that contribute to this process, and how they relate to each other. With photosynthesis, the elements include the sun, plants, animals, chlorophyll, oxygen produced by plants and consumed by animals, and carbon dioxide that produced by animals and consumed by plants. The roles of these elements need to be identified and expressed at a level appropriate for the students.
With advanced science students, oxygen, chlorophyll, and carbon dioxide may be expressed as part of complex chemical reactions; with first-grade students, though, they may be expressed simply as parts of a process akin to breathing or respiration. Once this analysis of the curriculum has been done, the Hunter's effective teaching model requires making the most of the lesson time by creating an anticipatory set , which is an activity that focuses or orients the attention of students to the upcoming content.
Creating an anticipatory set may consist, for example, of posing one or more questions about students' everyday knowledge or knowledge of prior lessons. In teaching about differences between fruits and vegetables, the teacher could start by asking: "If you are making a salad strictly of fruit, which of these would be OK to use: apple, tomato, cucumber, or orange?
Examples should be plentiful and varied: if the purpose is to define and distinguish fruits and vegetables, for example, then features defining each group should be presented singularly or at most just a few at a time, with clear-cut examples presented of each feature. Sometimes models or analogies also help to explain examples. A teacher can say: "Think of a fruit as a sort of 'decoration' on the plant, because if you pick it, the plant will go on living. In likening a fruit to a decoration, for example, students may overlook the essential role of fruit in plant reproduction, or think that lettuce qualifies as a fruit, since picking a few lettuce leaves does not usually kill a lettuce plant.
Throughout a lesson, the teacher repeatedly checks for understanding by asking questions that call for active thinking on the part of students. One way is to require all students to respond somehow, either with an actual choral response speaking in unison together , another way with a non-verbal signal like raising hands to indicate answers to questions.
In teaching about fruits and vegetables, for example, a teacher can ask, "Here's a list of fruits and vegetables. As I point to each one, raise your hand if it's a fruit, but not if it's a vegetable. Say together what each on is as I point to it; you say 'fruit' or 'vegetable', whichever applies. These checks can be supplemented, of course, with questions addressed to individuals, or with questions to which individuals must respond briefly in writing.
A teacher can ask everyone, "Give me an example of one fruit and one vegetable", and then call on individuals to answer. She can also say: "I want everyone to make a list with two columns, one listing all the fruits you can think of and the other listing all the vegetables you can think of. As a lesson draws to a close, the teacher arranges for students to have further independent practice.
The point of the practice is not to explore new material or ideas, but to consolidate or strengthen the recent learning. At the end of a lesson about long division, for example, the teacher can make a transition to independent practice by providing a set of additional problems similar to the ones she explained during the lesson.
After working one or two with students, she can turn the rest of the task over to the students to practice on their own. But note that even though the practice is supposedly "independent", students' understanding still has be checked frequently.
Along set of practice problems therefore needs to be broken up into small subsets of problems, and written or oral feedback offered periodically.
Whatever the grade level, most subjects taught in schools have at least some features, skills, or topics that benefit from direct instruction. Even subjects usually considered "creative" can benefit from a direct approach at times: to draw, sing, or write a poem, for example, requires skills that may be easier to learn if presented sequentially in small units with frequent feedback from a teacher. But there are limits to its usefulness. Some are the practical ones are pointed out above.
Teacher-directed instruction, whatever the form, requires well-organized units of instruction in advance of when students are to learn.
Such units may not always be available, and it may not be realistic to expect busy teachers to devise their own. Other limits of direct instruction have more to do with the very nature of learning. Some critics argue that organizing material on behalf of the students encourages students to be passive— an ironic and undesirable result if true Kohn, , According to this criticism, the mere fact that a curriculum or unit of study is constructed by a teacher or other authority makes some students think that they should not bother seeking information actively on their own, but wait for it to arrive of its own accord.
In support of this argument, critics point to the fact that direct instruction approaches sometimes contradict their own premises by requiring students to do a bit of cognitive organizational work of their own. This happens, for example, when a mastery learning program provides enrichment material to faster students to work on independently; in that case the teacher may be involved in the enrichment activities only minimally.
Criticisms like these have led to additional instructional approaches that rely more fully on students to seek and organize their own learning. In the next section we discuss some of these options. As you will see, student-centered models of learning do solve certain problems of teacher-directed instruction, but they also have problems of their own. Lectures and readings Lectures and readings are traditional staples of educators, particularly with older students including university students.
Advance organizers In spite of these problems, there are strategies for making lectures and readings effective. Recalling and relating prior knowledge Another strategy for improving teacher-directed instruction is to encourage students to relate the new material to prior familiar knowledge.
Elaborating information Elaborating new information means asking questions about the new material, inferring ideas and relationships among the new concepts. Organizing new information There are many ways to organize new information that are especially well-suited to teacher-directed instruction. Results include each measurement, rounded to the nearest integer : Observation 1 Observation 2 Observation 3 Observation 4 Average measurement, Main characters list and describe in just a few words : a b c d Setting of the story time and place : Unfamiliar vocabulary in the story list and define : a b c d 4.
Mastery learning This term refers to an instructional approach in which all students learn material to an identically high level, even if some students require more time than others to do so Gentile, Madeline Hunter's effective teaching model A number of direct instruction strategies have been combined by Madeline Hunter into a single, relatively comprehensive approach that she calls mastery teaching not to be confused with the related term mastery learning or the effective teaching model M.
Set a basic structure to the lesson and stay with it throughout Use familiar terms and examples Be concise Check for understanding and give guided practice. They are not really contributing to the learning experience. They are just being instructed as to what to do and what knowledge they will learn.
The ideas and the knowledge are their own and the teacher again is that facilitator who is able to add additional content, additional knowledge, support, and challenges in order to help the students grow.
Another aspect is student participation. In a teacher-directed classroom, the students are more passive. On the other side, we have the student-centered classroom where the students are active learners. They are creating their own knowledge and constructing their own environment for learning. We know that this is rooted in the constructivist theory by Jean Piaget who in the mids said that children need to construct their own learning and they need to be actively involved in the knowledge construction process instead of passively receiving it.
Real-life information will help them to more deeply understand and remember this content. We know that during play students can be incredibly engaged. As the primary teaching strategy under the teacher-centered approach , direct instruction utilizes passive learning, or the idea that students can learn what they need to through listening and watching very precise instruction.
Teachers and professors act as the sole supplier of knowledge, and under the direct instruction model, teachers often utilize systematic, scripted lesson plans. Direct instruction programs include exactly what the teacher should say, and activities that students should complete, for every minute of the lesson. Because it does not include student preferences or give them opportunities for hands-on or alternative types of learning, direct instruction is extremely teacher-centered.
The idea of the flipped classroom began in when two teachers began using software that would let them record their live lectures. By the next school year, they were implementing pre-recorded lectures and sharing the idea of what became known as the flipped classroom. Broadly, the flipped classroom label describes the teaching structure that has students watching pre-recorded lessons at home and completing in-class assignments, as opposed to hearing lectures in class and doing homework at home.
Teachers who implement the flipped classroom model often film their own instructional videos, but many also use pre-made videos from online sources. A key benefit of the flipped classroom model is that it allows for students to work at their own pace if that is how the teacher chooses to implement it. From a technology perspective, the system hinges on pre-recorded lessons and online activities, meaning both students and teachers need a good internet connection and devices that can access it.
Sometimes known as tactile learning"or "hands-on learning", kinesthetic learning is based on the idea of multiple intelligences , requiring students to do, make, or create. In a kinesthetic learning environment, students perform physical activities rather than listen to lectures or watch demonstrations. Hands-on experiences, drawing, role-play, building, and the use of drama and sports are all examples of kinesthetic classroom activities. Though a great way to keep students engaged and, at times, simply awake, very few classrooms employ kinesthetic learning activities exclusively.
One reason is that, despite the popularity of learning style theories, there is a lack of research-based evidence that shows that teaching to certain learning styles produces better academic results. One upside is that kinesthetic learning is rarely based on technology, as the method values movement and creativity over technological skills.
Differentiated instruction is the teaching practice of tailoring instruction to meet individual student needs. It initially grew popular with the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act IDEA , which ensured all children had equal access to public education. Today, differentiated instruction is used to meet the needs of all types of learners.
Teachers can differentiate in a number of ways: how students access content, the types of activities students do to master a concept, what the end product of learning looks like, and how the classroom is set up. Some examples of differentiation include: having students read books at their own reading levels, offering different spelling lists to students, or meeting in small groups to reteach topics.
Though differentiation is focused on individual student needs, it is mostly planned and implemented by the teacher. And technology, though a potential aid, is not a hallmark of the differentiated teaching style, making it a fairly traditional, low-barrier method to adopt.
Based on student investigation and hands-on projects, inquiry-based learning is a teaching method that casts a teacher as a supportive figure who provides guidance and support for students throughout their learning process, rather than a sole authority figure.
Teachers encourage students to ask questions and consider what they want to know about the world around them. Students then research their questions, find information and sources that explain key concepts and solve problems they may encounter along the way.
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